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| en:iot-reloaded:cybersecurity_concepts [2024/12/03 18:41] – [The confidentiality, integrity and availability (CIA) triad] ktokarz | en:iot-reloaded:cybersecurity_concepts [2025/05/13 15:01] (current) – [What is cybersecurity] pczekalski |
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| After understanding cybersecurity, it is also essential to understand what a cyberattack is. A cyberattack can be considered any deliberate compromise of an information system's confidentiality, integrity, or availability. That is unauthorised access to a network, computer system or digital device with a malicious intention to steal, expose, alter, disable, or destroy data, applications or other assets. A successful cyberattack can cause a lot of damage to its victims, ranging from loss of data to financial losses. An organisation whose systems have been compromised by a successful cyber attack could lose its reputation and be forced to pay for damages incurred by customers due to a successful cybersecurity attack. | After understanding cybersecurity, it is also essential to understand what a cyberattack is. A cyberattack can be considered any deliberate compromise of an information system's confidentiality, integrity, or availability. That is unauthorised access to a network, computer system or digital device with a malicious intention to steal, expose, alter, disable, or destroy data, applications or other assets. A successful cyberattack can cause a lot of damage to its victims, ranging from loss of data to financial losses. An organisation whose systems have been compromised by a successful cyber attack could lose its reputation and be forced to pay for damages incurred by customers due to a successful cybersecurity attack. |
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| The question is why should we be worried about cybersecurity attacks, especially in the context of IoT. The widespread adoption of IoT to improve business processes and personal well-being has exponentially increased the options available to cybercriminals to conduct cybersecurity attacks, increasing cybersecurity-related risks for businesses and individuals. This underscores the need for IoT engineers, IT engineers, and other non-IT employees to understand cybersecurity concepts. | The question is: Why should we be worried about cybersecurity attacks, especially in the context of IoT? The widespread adoption of IoT to improve business processes and personal well-being has exponentially increased the options available to cybercriminals to conduct cybersecurity attacks, increasing cybersecurity-related risks for businesses and individuals. This underscores the need for IoT engineers, IT engineers, and other non-IT employees to understand cybersecurity concepts. |
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| ===== The confidentiality, integrity and availability (CIA) triad ===== | ===== The confidentiality, integrity and availability (CIA) triad ===== |
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| <figure IoTcybersec1> | <figure IoTcybersec1> |
| {{ :en:iot-reloaded:cybersecurity-page-1.png?400 |CIA triad}} | {{ :en:iot-reloaded:cybersecurity-page-1.png?400 |CIA Triad}} |
| <caption>CIA triad</caption> | <caption>CIA Triad</caption> |
| </figure> | </figure> |
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| * The accuracy of the data is preserved by ensuring that the data is not altered or aggregated either by human error or malicious attacks in such a way that affects the results of further processing and analysis of the data. | * The accuracy of the data is preserved by ensuring that the data is not altered or aggregated either by human error or malicious attacks in such a way that affects the results of further processing and analysis of the data. |
| * The consistency of the data should be maintained by ensuring that the data is unchanged regardless of how often it's accessed and no matter how long it's stored. | * The consistency of the data should be maintained by ensuring that the data is unchanged regardless of how often it's accessed and no matter how long it's stored. |
| * Data safety should be ensured by guaranteeing that it is securely maintained and accessed only by authorised applications and individuals. Data security methods such as authentication, authorisation, encryption, backups, etc., can be used to ensure that the data is not altered or destroyed by unauthorised applications or individuals. | * Data safety should be ensured by guaranteeing it is securely maintained and accessed only by authorised applications and individuals. Data security methods such as authentication, authorisation, encryption, backups, etc., can ensure that unauthorised applications or individuals do not alter or destroy the data. |
| The IoT system designers, manufacturers, developers, and operators should ensure that the data collected is not lost, leaked, or corrupted during transportation, processing, or storage. As the data collected by IoT sensors is growing and lots of companies depend on the results from the processing of IoT data for decision-making, it is vital to ensure the integrity of the data. It must be assured that the IoT data collected is complete, accurate, consistent and secure throughout its lifecycle, as compromised data is of little or no interest to organisations and users. Also, data losses due to human error and cyberattacks are undesirable for organisations and users. Physical and logical factors can influence the integrity of the data. | The IoT system designers, manufacturers, developers, and operators should ensure that the data collected is not lost, leaked, or corrupted during transportation, processing, or storage. As the data collected by IoT sensors is growing and lots of companies depend on the results from the processing of IoT data for decision-making, it is vital to ensure the integrity of the data. It must be assured that the IoT data collected is complete, accurate, consistent and secure throughout its lifecycle, as compromised data is of little or no interest to organisations and users. Also, data losses due to human error and cyberattacks are undesirable for organisations and users. Physical and logical factors can influence the integrity of the data. |
| * Physical integrity: It includes the various ways the integrity of the data can be compromised during transportation, storage and retrieval. During the transportation of data, some parts of the data could be lost due to packet losses occurring at the network equipment or packet errors caused by a disturbance in the transmission media. Also, data could be lost due to physical damage to the storage or computing devices. The integrity of the data could be compromised due to the following reasons: | * Physical integrity: It includes the various ways the integrity of the data can be compromised during transportation, storage and retrieval. During the transportation of data, some parts of the data could be lost due to packet losses occurring at the network equipment or packet errors caused by a disturbance in the transmission media. Also, data could be lost due to physical damage to the storage or computing devices. The integrity of the data could be compromised due to the following reasons: |
| * Hardware failures and faults. | * Hardware failures and faults. |
| * Design failures and negligence. | * Design failures and negligence. |
| * Natural failures that may result from the deterioration of the hardware device (e.g., corrosion). | * Natural failures may result from the deterioration of the hardware device (e.g., corrosion). |
| * Power failures and outages. | * Power failures and outages. |
| * Natural disasters. | * Natural disasters. |
| * Environmentally induced failures resulting from extreme environmental failures like high temperatures. | * Environmentally induced failures resulting from extreme environmental failures like high temperatures. |
| * Cyberattacks that are designed to cause hardware failures or power failures (e.g., energy depletion attacks). | * Cyberattacks designed to cause hardware or power failures (e.g., energy depletion attacks). |
| The physical integrity of data could be enforced by: | The physical integrity of data could be enforced by: |
| * Implementing redundancy in data storage systems to ensure that failure of a storage memory will not result in data losses. | * Implementing redundancy in data storage systems to ensure that failure of a storage memory will not result in data losses. |
| * Ensuring effective operation and maintenance processes. | * Ensuring effective operation and maintenance processes. |
| * Ensuring effective and efficient energy sources and energy storage systems. | * Ensuring effective and efficient energy sources and energy storage systems. |
| * To increase the lifetime of IoT nodes, energy consumption should be minimised. | * Energy consumption should be minimised to increase the lifetime of IoT nodes. |
| * Software design flaws and bugs should be resolved immediately and quickly to minimise downtimes. | * Software design flaws and bugs should be resolved immediately and quickly to minimise downtimes. |
| * The physical storage locations of hardware infrastructure should be carefully secured. | * The physical storage locations of hardware infrastructure should be carefully secured. |
| * Effective authentication and authorisation mechanisms should ensure that authorised users have access to the systems when needed. | * Effective authentication and authorisation mechanisms should ensure that authorised users can access the systems when needed. |
| * Cybersecurity systems should be carefully implemented and configured to minimise performance degradation and downtimes resulting from malfunctioning. | * Cybersecurity systems should be carefully implemented and configured to minimise performance degradation and downtimes resulting from malfunctioning. |
| * Ensuring the networking systems are correctly configured with appropriate security mechanisms and networking failures are quickly resolved. | * Ensuring the networking systems are correctly configured with appropriate security mechanisms and networking failures are quickly resolved. |
| **Cybersecurity risk**: It is the probability of being exposed to a cybersecurity attack or that any of the cybersecurity requirements of confidentiality, integrity, or availability is violated, which may result in data theft, leakage, damage or corruption. It may also result in service disruption or downtime that may cause the company to lose revenue and damage infrastructure. An organisation that falls victim to a successful cyber-attack may lose its reputation and be compelled to pay damages to its customers or to pay a fine to regulatory agencies. Thus, a cybersecurity risk is the potential losses that an organisation or individuals may experience as a result of successful cyberattacks or failures of the information systems that may result in loss of data, customers, revenues, and resources (assets and financial losses). | **Cybersecurity risk**: It is the probability of being exposed to a cybersecurity attack or that any of the cybersecurity requirements of confidentiality, integrity, or availability is violated, which may result in data theft, leakage, damage or corruption. It may also result in service disruption or downtime that may cause the company to lose revenue and damage infrastructure. An organisation that falls victim to a successful cyber-attack may lose its reputation and be compelled to pay damages to its customers or to pay a fine to regulatory agencies. Thus, a cybersecurity risk is the potential losses that an organisation or individuals may experience as a result of successful cyberattacks or failures of the information systems that may result in loss of data, customers, revenues, and resources (assets and financial losses). |
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| **Threats**: It is an action performed to violate any cybersecurity requirements that may result in data theft, leakage, damage, corruption, or losses. The action may either disclose the data to unauthorised individuals or alter the data illegally. It may equally result in the disruption of services due to system downtime, system unavailability, or data unavailability. The could that could be considered threats could be infection of devices with viruses or malware, ransomware attacks, denial of service, phishing attacks, social engineering attacks, password attacks, SQL injection, data breaches, man-in-the-middle attacks, energy depletion attacks (the case of IoT devices), or many other attack vectors. Cybersecurity threats could result from threat actors such as nation stations, cybercriminals, hacktivists, disgruntled employees, design errors, misconfiguring of systems, software flaws or bugs, terrorists, spies, errors from authorised users, and natural disasters ((Abi Tyas Tunggal, What is Cybersecurity Risk? A Thorough Definition, https://www.upguard.com/blog/cybersecurity-risk, 2024)). | **Threats**: It is an action performed to violate any cybersecurity requirements that may result in data theft, leakage, damage, corruption, or losses. The action may either disclose the data to unauthorised individuals or alter the data illegally. It may equally result in the disruption of services due to system downtime, system unavailability, or data unavailability. Threats may include, among others, device infections with viruses or malware, ransomware attacks, denial of service, phishing attacks, social engineering attacks, password attacks, SQL injection, data breaches, man-in-the-middle attacks, energy depletion attacks (the case of IoT devices), or many other attack vectors. Cybersecurity threats could result from threat actors such as nation stations, cybercriminals, hacktivists, disgruntled employees, design errors, misconfiguring of systems, software flaws or bugs, terrorists, spies, errors from authorised users, and natural disasters ((Abi Tyas Tunggal, What is Cybersecurity Risk? A Thorough Definition, https://www.upguard.com/blog/cybersecurity-risk, 2024)). |
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| ** Cybersecurity vulnerability**: It is a weakness, flaw, or error found in an information system or a cybersecurity system that cybercriminals could exploit to compromise the security of an information system. There are several cybersecurity vulnerabilities, and so many are still being discovered. Still, the most common ones include SQL injection, buffer overflows, cross-site scripting, security misconfiguration ((Rapid 7, Vulnerabilities, Exploits, and Threats, https://www.rapid7.com/fundamentals/vulnerabilities-exploits-threats/)), weak authentication and authorisation mechanisms, and unencrypted data during transportation or storage. Security vulnerabilities can be identified using vulnerability scanners and performing penetration testing. When a vulnerability is detected, necessary steps should be taken to eliminate or mitigate its risk. | ** Cybersecurity vulnerability**: It is a weakness, flaw, or error found in an information system or a cybersecurity system that cybercriminals could exploit to compromise the security of an information system. There are several cybersecurity vulnerabilities, and so many are still being discovered. Still, the most common ones include SQL injection, buffer overflows, cross-site scripting, security misconfiguration ((Rapid 7, Vulnerabilities, Exploits, and Threats, https://www.rapid7.com/fundamentals/vulnerabilities-exploits-threats/)), weak authentication and authorisation mechanisms, and unencrypted data during transportation or storage. Security vulnerabilities can be identified using vulnerability scanners and performing penetration testing. When a vulnerability is detected, necessary steps should be taken to eliminate or mitigate its risk. |
| **Cybersecurity exploit**: A cybersecurity exploit is the various ways that cybercriminals take advantage of cybersecurity vulnerabilities to conduct cyberattacks to compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information systems. The exploit may involve the use of advanced techniques (e.g., commands, scripting, or programming) and software tools (proprietary or open-source) to identify and exploit vulnerabilities to steal data, disrupt the services, damage or corrupt the data, and hijack data or systems in exchange for money. | **Cybersecurity exploit**: A cybersecurity exploit is the various ways that cybercriminals take advantage of cybersecurity vulnerabilities to conduct cyberattacks to compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information systems. The exploit may involve the use of advanced techniques (e.g., commands, scripting, or programming) and software tools (proprietary or open-source) to identify and exploit vulnerabilities to steal data, disrupt the services, damage or corrupt the data, and hijack data or systems in exchange for money. |
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| **Attack vector**: It is the various ways that attackers may compromise the security of an information system, such as computing, communication, or data storage and retrieval systems. Some of the common attack vectors include | **Attack vector**: It is the various ways that attackers may compromise the security of an information system, such as computing, communication, or data storage and retrieval systems. Some of the common attack vectors include: |
| * Phishing attacks | * Phishing attacks. |
| * Email attachments, | * Email attachments. |
| * Credential theft using various social engineering techniques, | * Credential theft using various social engineering techniques. |
| * Account takeover to steal or damage data and other resources and to conduct further attacks | * Account takeover to steal or damage data and other resources and to conduct further attacks. |
| * Cryptanalysis of encrypted data, | * Cryptoanalysis of encrypted data. |
| * Man-in-the-middle attacks, | * Man-in-the-middle attacks. |
| * Cross-site scripting, | * Cross-site scripting. |
| * SQL injection, | * SQL injection. |
| * Insider threats, | * Insider threats. |
| * Vulnerability exploits (e.g., vulnerabilities in unpatched software, servers, and operating systems), | * Vulnerability exploits (e.g., vulnerabilities in unpatched software, servers, and operating systems). |
| * Browser-based attacks, application compromise, | * Browser-based attacks, application compromise. |
| * Brute-force attacks to compromise passwords, | * Brute-force attacks to compromise passwords. |
| * Using malware to take over devices, gain unauthorised access, and may cause damage to data or the information systems, | * Using malware to take over devices, gain unauthorised access, and may cause damage to data or information systems. |
| * Exploiting the presence of open ports. | * Exploiting the presence of open ports. |
| The various approaches to eliminate attack vectors to reduce the chances of a successful attack include the following ((Cloudflare, What is an attack vector?, https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/security/glossary/attack-vector/)): | The various approaches to eliminate attack vectors to reduce the chances of a successful attack include the following ((Cloudflare, What is an attack vector? https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/security/glossary/attack-vector/)): |
| * Encryption of data during transportation, storage, and retrieval. | * Encryption of data during transportation, storage, and retrieval. |
| * Designing effective security policies and training and compelling employees and stakeholders to apply them. | * Designing effective security policies and training and compelling employees and stakeholders to apply them. |
| * Deploying threats (intrusion) detection and prevention systems. | * Deploying threats (intrusion) detection and prevention systems. |
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| **Attack surface**: An attack surface is a location or possible attack vectors that cybercriminals can target or use to compromise data and information systems' confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Organisations and individuals should always strive to minimise their attack surfaces; the smaller the attack surfaces, the smaller the likelihood that their data or information systems will be compromised. So, they have to constantly monitor their attack surfaces to detect and block attacks as soon as possible and minimise the potential risk of a successful attack. Some of the common attack surfaces are poorly secured devices (e.g., devices such as computers, mobile phones, hard drives, and IoT devices), weak passwords, a lack of email security, open ports, and a failure to patch software, which offers an open backdoor for attackers to target and exploit users and organisations. Another common attack surface is weak web-based protocols, which hackers can exploit to steal data through man-in-the-middle (MITM) attacks. There are two categories of attack surface, which include ((Fortinet, What Is An Attack Surface?, https://www.fortinet.com/resources/cyberglossary/attack-surface)) | **Attack surface**: An attack surface is a location or possible attack vectors that cybercriminals can target or use to compromise data and information systems' confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Organisations and individuals should always strive to minimise their attack surfaces; the smaller the attack surfaces, the smaller the likelihood that their data or information systems will be compromised. So, they must constantly monitor their attack surfaces to detect and block attacks as soon as possible and minimise the potential risk of a successful attack. Some of the common attack surfaces are poorly secured devices (e.g., devices such as computers, mobile phones, hard drives, and IoT devices), weak passwords, a lack of email security, open ports, and a failure to patch software, which offers an open backdoor for attackers to target and exploit users and organisations. Another common attack surface is weak web-based protocols, which hackers can exploit to steal data through man-in-the-middle (MITM) attacks. There are two categories of attack surface, which include ((Fortinet, What Is An Attack Surface?, https://www.fortinet.com/resources/cyberglossary/attack-surface)) |
| * **Digital attack surface**: This kind of attack surface consists of all the software and hardware systems found within an organisation's infrastructure. These include applications, code, ports, servers, websites, and sensor devices (in the case of IoT devices). With the deployment of tens of millions to hundreds of millions of IoT devices, the attack surfaces created by IoT infrastructure from the sensor layer, through the networking infrastructure, to fog/cloud computing infrastructure is vast. | * **Digital attack surface**: This kind of attack surface consists of all the software and hardware systems found within an organisation's infrastructure. These include applications, code, ports, servers, websites, and sensor devices (IoT devices). With the deployment of tens of millions to hundreds of millions of IoT devices, the attack surfaces created by IoT infrastructure from the sensor layer, through the networking infrastructure, to fog/cloud computing infrastructure is vast. |
| * **Physical attack surface**: This kind of attack surface consists of all endpoint devices that an attacker can gain physical access to, such as desktop computers, hard drives, laptops, mobile phones, Universal Serial Bus (USB) drives, and IoT devices (in the case of IoT systems). Some physical attack surfaces include carelessly discarded hardware containing user data and login credentials, user passwords written on pieces of paper, and unauthorised access to the physical location where sensitive assets are stored. | * **Physical attack surface**: This kind of attack surface consists of all endpoint devices that an attacker can gain physical access to, such as desktop computers, hard drives, laptops, mobile phones, Universal Serial Bus (USB) drives, and IoT devices (in the case of IoT systems). Some physical attack surfaces include carelessly discarded hardware containing user data and login credentials, user passwords written on pieces of paper, and unauthorised access to the physical location where sensitive assets are stored. |
| A practical attack surface management provides the following advantages to organisations and individuals: | A practical attack surface management provides the following advantages to organisations and individuals: |
| * To mitigate the risk posed by cybersecurity threats. | * To mitigate the risk posed by cybersecurity threats. |
| * Identify new attack surfaces created as they expand their infrastructure and adopt new services. | * Identify new attack surfaces created as they expand their infrastructure and adopt new services. |
| * Effective management of access to critical sources and data minimises the chances of any security breach. | * Effective management of access to critical resources and data minimises the chances of any security breach. |
| * Minimise the possibility of successful cybersecurity attacks. | * Minimise the possibility of successful cybersecurity attacks. |
| As IT infrastructures increase and are connected to external IT systems over the internet, they become more complex, hard to secure, and frequently targeted by cybercriminals. Some of the ways to minimise attack surfaces to reduce the risk of cyberattacks include: | As IT infrastructures increase and are connected to external IT systems over the internet, they become more complex, hard to secure, and frequently targeted by cybercriminals. Some of the ways to minimise attack surfaces to reduce the risk of cyberattacks include: |
| * The implementation of zero-trust policies ensures that only authorised users and applications can access information resources (computing devices, sensor devices, networks, servers, databases, etc.). This eliminates or reduces the chances of unauthorised access that compromises | * Implementing zero-trust policies ensures that only authorised users and applications can access information resources (computing devices, sensor devices, networks, servers, databases, etc.). This eliminates or reduces the chances of unauthorised access. |
| * Reducing unnecessary complexities by turning off or removing unused hardware devices and software from the IT infrastructure to reduce the attack surfaces that cybercriminals can exploit. | * Reducing unnecessary complexities by turning off or removing unused hardware devices and software from the IT infrastructure to reduce the attack surfaces that cybercriminals can exploit. |
| * Perform regular security audits and scan the entire network and IT systems to identify vulnerabilities (both hardware and software) that cybercriminals could exploit and resolve to reduce the attack surface that cybercriminals can exploit. | * Perform regular security audits and scan the entire network and IT systems to identify vulnerabilities (both hardware and software) that cybercriminals could exploit and resolve to reduce the attack surface that cybercriminals can exploit. |
| * There is a growing anxiety that when quantum computing technologies mature, they will be able to break advanced encryption schemes that we now depend on to protect our data. | * There is a growing anxiety that when quantum computing technologies mature, they will be able to break advanced encryption schemes that we now depend on to protect our data. |
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| **Authentication**: Authentication is an access control mechanism that makes it possible to verify that a user, device, or application is who they claim to be. The authentication credentials (username and password) are matched against a database of authorised users or data authentication servers to verify their identities and ensure they have access rights to the device, servers, application or database. Using a username or ID and a password for authentication is called single-factor authentication. Recently, organisations, especially those dealing with sensitive data (e.g., banks), require their users and applications to provide multiple factors for authentication (rather than only an ID and password), resulting in what is now known as multi-factor authentication. In the case of two factors, it is known as two-factor authentication. Using human features such as Fingerprint scans, facial or retina scans, and voice recognition is known as biometric authentication ((Nick Barney, Authentication, https://www.techtarget.com/searchsecurity/definition/authentication)). Authentication ensures the confidentiality and integrity of data and information systems by allowing only authenticated users, applications, and processes access valuable and sensitive resources (e.g., computers, wireless networks, wireless access points, databases, websites, and other network-based applications and services). | **Authentication**: Authentication is an access control mechanism that makes it possible to verify that a user, device, or application is who they claim to be. The authentication credentials (username and password) are matched against a database of authorised users or data authentication servers to verify their identities and ensure they have access rights to the device, servers, application or database. Using a username or ID and a password for authentication is called single-factor authentication. Recently, organisations, especially those dealing with sensitive data (e.g., banks), require their users and applications to provide multiple factors for authentication (rather than only an ID and password), resulting in what is now known as multi-factor authentication. In the case of two factors, it is known as two-factor authentication. Using human features such as fingerprint scans, facial or retina scans, and voice recognition is known as biometric authentication ((Nick Barney, Authentication, https://www.techtarget.com/searchsecurity/definition/authentication)). Authentication ensures the confidentiality and integrity of data and information systems by allowing only authenticated users, applications, and processes access valuable and sensitive resources (e.g., computers, wireless networks, wireless access points, databases, websites, and other network-based applications and services). |
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| **Authorisation**: Just like authentication, authorisation is another process often used to protect data and information systems from being abused or misused by cybercriminals and unintended (or intended) actions of authorised users. Authorisation is the process of determining the access rights of users and applications to ensure they have the right to perform the action they are trying to perform. That is, unlike authentication, which verifies the users' identities and then grants them access to the systems, authorisation determines the permissions they have to perform specific actions. One example of authorisation is the Access Control List (ACL), which allows or denies users and applications access to particular information system resources and to perform specific actions. General users may be allowed to perform some actions but may be refused permission to perform others. In contrast, super users or system administrators can perform almost every action in the system. Also, some users are authorised to access some data and are denied access to more sensitive data; thus, in database systems, general users may be permitted to access less sensitive data, and the administrator is permitted access to more sensitive data. | **Authorisation**: Just like authentication, authorisation is another process often used to protect data and information systems from being abused or misused by cybercriminals and unintended (or intended) actions of authorised users. Authorisation is the process of determining the access rights of users and applications to ensure they have the right to perform the action they are trying to perform. Unlike authentication, which verifies the users' identities and then grants them access to the systems, authorisation determines the permissions they have to perform specific actions. One example of authorisation is the Access Control List (ACL), which allows or denies users and applications access to particular information system resources and to perform specific actions. General users may be allowed to perform some actions but may be refused permission to perform others. In contrast, super users or system administrators can perform almost every action in the system. Also, some users are authorised to access some data and are denied access to more sensitive data; thus, in database systems, general users may be permitted to access less sensitive data, and the administrator is permitted access to more sensitive data. |
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| **Access control**: It consists of the various mechanisms designed and implemented to grant authorised users access to information system resources and to control the actions that they are allowed to perform (e.g., view, modify, update, install, delete). It can also be the control of an organisation's physical access to critical resources. It ensures that the confidentiality and integrity of data and information systems are not compromised. Thus, physical access controls physical access to critical resources, while logical access control controls access to information systems (networks, computing nodes, servers, files, and databases). Access to locations where critical assets (servers, network equipment, files) are stored is restricted using electronic access control systems that use keys, access card readers, personal identification number (PIN) pads, auditing and reports to track employee access to these locations. Access to information systems (networks, computing nodes, servers, files, and databases) is restricted using authentication and authorisation mechanisms that evaluate the required user login credentials, which can include passwords, PINs, biometric scans, security tokens or other authentication factors ((Gavin Wright,What is access control?, https://www.techtarget.com/searchsecurity/definition/access-control )). | **Access control**: It consists of the various mechanisms designed and implemented to grant authorised users access to information system resources and to control the actions that they are allowed to perform (e.g., view, modify, update, install, delete). It can also control an organisation's physical access to critical resources. It ensures that the confidentiality and integrity of data and information systems are not compromised. Thus, physical access controls physical access to critical resources, while logical access control controls access to information systems (networks, computing nodes, servers, files, and databases). Access to locations where critical assets (servers, network equipment, files) are stored is restricted using electronic access control systems that use keys, access card readers, personal identification number (PIN) pads, auditing and reports to track employee access to these locations. Access to information systems (networks, computing nodes, servers, files, and databases) is restricted using authentication and authorisation mechanisms that evaluate the required user login credentials, which can include passwords, PINs, biometric scans, security tokens or other authentication factors ((Gavin Wright,What is access control?, https://www.techtarget.com/searchsecurity/definition/access-control )). |
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| **Non-repudiation**: It is a way to ensure that the data sender does not refute that it sent the data and that the receiver does not deny that it received the data. It also ensures that an entity that signs a document cannot refute its signature. It is a concept adopted from the legal field and has become one of the five pillars of information assurance, including confidentiality, integrity, availability, and authentication. It ensures the authenticity and integrity of the message. It provides the sender's identity to the receiver and assures the sender that the message was delivered without being altered along the way. In this way, the sender and receiver cannot deny they send, receive or process the data. Signatures can be used to ensure non-repudiation as long as they are unique for each entity. | **Non-repudiation**: It is a way to ensure that the data sender does not refute that it sent the data and that the receiver does not deny that it received the data. It also ensures that an entity that signs a document cannot refute its signature. It is a concept adopted from the legal field and has become one of the five pillars of information assurance, including confidentiality, integrity, availability, and authentication. It ensures the authenticity and integrity of the message. It provides the sender's identity to the receiver and assures the sender that the message was delivered without being altered along the way. In this way, the sender and receiver cannot deny they send, receive or process the data. Signatures can be used to ensure non-repudiation as long as they are unique for each entity. |
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| **Accountability**: Accountability requires organisations to take all the necessary steps to prevent cyberattacks and mitigate the risk of a possible attack. In case an attack occurs, the organisation must take responsibility for the damages and engage relevant stakeholders to handle the consequences and prevent future attacks. It must also accept responsibility for dealing with security challenges and fallouts from security breaches. | **Accountability**: Accountability requires organisations to take all the necessary steps to prevent cyberattacks and mitigate the risk of a possible attack. If an attack occurs, the organisation must take responsibility for the damages and engage relevant stakeholders to handle the consequences and prevent future attacks. It must also accept responsibility for dealing with security challenges and fallouts from security breaches. |
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