Typical Hardware Integration Procedures & Supply Chain Management Approaches

Hardware integration is a structured, iterative process designed to ensure that all components — sensors, processors, actuators, and communication modules — work together seamlessly and safely. In autonomous systems, integration must account for functional, electrical, mechanical, and software–hardware interfaces simultaneously ^[1,2]. The following sections describe standardised integration procedures used across automotive, robotics, and aerospace industries.

Integration begins with defining functional requirements, interface specifications, and testing criteria. Key steps:

• Define subsystem roles: sensors, computation, actuation, communication, and power.
• Specify interfaces: voltage levels, connectors, data rates, protocols (e.g., CAN, UART, Ethernet, SPI).
• Set performance constraints: latency budgets, power envelopes, fault tolerance, safety margins.
• Establish test metrics: accuracy, reliability, thermal tolerance, and MTBF (mean time between failures).

This stage aligns stakeholders (hardware engineers, software developers, and supply managers) under a shared system model — often implemented using Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) tools such as SysML, MATLAB Simulink, or Enterprise Architect.

Each subsystem is designed and tested individually, using simulated or mock environments:

• Sensor modules undergo calibration and noise testing.
• Processing boards are benchmarked for computational throughput and thermal dissipation.
• Actuation subsystems (motors, servos, hydraulics) are tested for response time and precision.

Prototype interfaces are validated through Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) or Software-in-the-Loop (SIL) setups to ensure cross-compatibility before full integration.

At this stage, physical and electrical integration occur:

• Assembly of sensor suites onto mechanical structures (vehicle body, UAV frame, or marine hull).
• Routing of wiring harnesses, data buses, and power lines to minimize interference.
• Installation of embedded computers, gateways, and controllers.

Integration testing ensures that the full system operates as expected under diverse conditions. Testing methods include:

• Unit and subsystem tests: Validate functionality of individual modules.
• Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) testing: Real-time simulation of sensors and actuators.
• Environmental tests: Shock, vibration, and thermal chamber evaluations per MIL-STD-810G or ISO 16750.
• Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) testing: Assess cross-interference between radios, processors, and power systems.
• Calibration: Align sensor measurements (LiDAR–camera extrinsics, IMU alignment).

Testing outcomes feed back into design revisions, forming a closed integration loop that improves reliability iteratively.

Upon successful validation, systems undergo formal verification and certification processes. Common frameworks include:

• Automotive: ISO 26262 (safety), ISO/PAS 21448 (SOTIF – Safety of Intended Functionality).
• Aerospace: DO-254 and DO-178C (hardware and software assurance).
• Marine: DNV-ST-0358 (Autonomous and Remotely Operated Vessels Certification).

Compliance ensures that systems meet functional safety, traceability, and documentation requirements for commercial or defence deployment ^[3]

While continuous integration (CI) originated in software, it is now applied to hardware development. Through hardware CI pipelines, designs are automatically:

• Simulated and synthesised (FPGA/ASIC flows).
• Deployed to prototype boards for regression testing.
• Linked with software CI systems (e.g., Jenkins, GitLab CI).

This convergence of software and hardware pipelines accelerates innovation cycles in autonomous platforms.